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An example of the approach in which basic emotions have simple or elementary eliciting conditions can be found in the proposals of Arnold (1960), who used as her criterion the re- quirement that such emotions be elicited as a result of the com- bination of three fundamental dichotomous factors: the desir- ability or undesirability of the object of the emotion, the pres- ence or absence of that object, and the ease or difficulty of attaining it. This is why Arnold believed courage (or rashness and daring) to be a basic emotion; courage occurs when an un- desirable object is not present but is difficult to avoid or over- come. If one feels uncomfortable with the idea that courage is an emotion, as do we and hundreds of subjects in numerous experiments in which courage was either not elicited as an emotion word (e.g., Fehr & Russell, 1984) or in which it was judged to be a poor example of one (e.g., Averill, 1975; Clore, Ortony, & Foss, 1987), one might he inclined to conclude that there is something unsatisfactory about the criterion advocated by Arnold or at least about the particular form of it that she in- voked.
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